Many diagnostic, prognostic and/or monitoring assays rely on detection of a biological marker of a particular disease state or disease susceptibility. Such biological markers are commonly proteins or polypeptides that are characteristic of a particular disease or associated with susceptibility to disease.
In recent years it has become apparent that antibodies, and in particular autoantibodies, can also serve as biological markers of disease or disease susceptibility. Autoantibodies are naturally occurring antibodies directed to an antigen which an individual's immune system recognises as foreign even though that antigen actually originated in the individual. They may be present in the circulation as circulating free autoantibodies or in the form of circulating immune complexes consisting of autoantibodies bound to their target marker protein. Differences between a wild type protein expressed by “normal” cells and an altered form of the protein produced by a diseased cell or during a disease process may, in some instances, lead to the altered protein being recognised by an individual's immune system as “non-self” and thus eliciting an immune response in that individual. This may be a humoral (i.e. B cell-mediated) immune response leading to the production of autoantibodies immunologically specific to the altered protein.
WO 99/58978 describes methods for use in the detection/diagnosis of cancer which are based on evaluating the immune response of an individual to two or more distinct tumour markers. These methods generally involve contacting a sample of bodily fluid taken from the individual with a panel of two or more distinct tumour marker antigens, each derived from a separate tumour marker protein, and detecting the formation of complexes of the tumour marker antigens bound to circulating autoantibodies immunologically specific for the tumour marker proteins. The presence of such circulating autoantibodies is taken as an indication of the presence of cancer.
Assays which measure the immune response of the individual to the presence of tumour marker protein in terms of autoantibody production provide an alternative to the direct measurement or detection of tumour marker protein in bodily fluids. Such assays essentially constitute indirect detection of the presence of tumour marker protein. Because of the nature of the immune response, it is likely that autoantibodies can be elicited by a very small amount of circulating tumour marker protein and indirect methods which rely on detecting the immune response to tumour markers will consequently be more sensitive than methods for the direct measurement of tumour markers in bodily fluids. Assay methods based on the detection of autoantibodies may therefore be of particular value early in the disease process and possibly also in relation to screening of asymptomatic patients, for example in screening to identify individuals “at risk” of developing disease amongst a population of asymptomatic individuals, to identify individuals who have developed a disease amongst a population of asymptomatic individuals. In addition the method based on the detection of autoantibodies may be of particular value early in the disease process and possibly also may be used to identify individuals who have developed a disease amongst a population of symptomatic individuals. Furthermore, they may be useful for earlier detection of recurrent disease. The assay methods may also be a value in selecting or monitoring therapies for a disease.
Antibodies and autoantibodies can also serve as biological markers of other disease states or disease susceptibilities, of which rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematous (SLE), primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), autoimmune thyroiditis (e.g. Hashimoto's thyroiditis), autoimmune gastritis (e.g. pernicious anaemia), autoimmune adrenalitis (e.g. Addison's disease), autoimmune hypoparathyroidism, autoimmune diabetes (e.g. Type 1 diabetes), myasthenia gravis are but examples.
The present inventors have recognised that when assays based on detection of antibodies are used diagnostically or prognostically to assess the disease state, disease progression or disease susceptibility of an individual within a population, difficulties can arise in devising a standardised assay methodology appropriate for the whole population of subjects to be screened because the absolute amounts of antibody present vary dramatically from individual to individual. This can produce a high incidence of false negative results, for example amongst individuals having a low amount of antibody. Similarly there is a difficulty in scoring true positive results because the variation in absolute amounts of antibody from individual to individual means that it is difficult to set a threshold for a positive assay result that is appropriate for all individuals within the population screened.
The present inventors have now determined that the performance and more specifically the clinical utility and reliability of assays based on detection of antibodies, particularly autoantibodies, as biological markers of disease can be improved dramatically by inclusion of an antigen titration step. By testing the sample suspected of containing antibodies against a series of different amounts of antigen and constructing a titration curve it is possible to reliably identify true positive screening results independently of the absolute amount of antibody present in the sample. Such an approach is contrary to prior art methods which titrate antigen merely to construct a calibration curve to allow identification of the most appropriate antigen concentration to be used for detecting antibodies in actual patient samples. In these methods only a single point measurement is proposed for actual diagnosis. Thus, these methods will not allow for variation in amounts of the antibody to be detected from individual to individual resulting in the incidence of false positives and false negatives as discussed. The present inventors have found that the antigen titration method of the invention discussed herein has greater specificity and sensitivity than measuring autoantibody reactivity at a single antigen concentration or methods in which the serum sample is titrated rather than the antigen.